Dr Ken Harland, Youth Action, Northern Ireland
 

Many young men today face many paradoxes, contradictions and tensions for which they are not mentally or emotionally prepared. This pervades every level of their experience (Messner, 1997; Pollack, 1998; 2001). Public expectations demand that families, schools and local communities are safe environments where young people are supported, encouraged, valued, mentored and loved. In reality however, these settings are often hostile environments that leave many young men feeling marginalised, frustrated, worthless and socially excluded (Harland, 1997). It is significant that social structures such as school, supposedly established to educate, support and resource young people, are often perceived by certain working class young men as simply part of a system that perpetually denounces them as failures. These are important issues to consider for those with responsibility for working with marginalised young men, as they help contextualise their lives and provide greater insight into contemporary male sub cultures and behaviour. Crucially however, failure to effectively address the needs of these young men has serious implications for their emotional, mental and sexual well-being. A recent study by Harland (2000) revealed that young men living in interface areas of inner city Belfast were wary of other young males within their community whilst fearful of young men from different traditions and backgrounds. Increasing male trends in alcohol abuse, drug dependency, violence, suicide, mental illness, academic underachievement and involvement in crime also caused the young men concern. Paramilitary influence was a constant threat that made them feel intimidated, suspicious and confused, particularly regarding issues surrounding law and order. They feared the dangers associated with punishment beatings, which is understandable when you consider that nine out of ten of those killed during the troubles have been men, with half between the age of fifteen and twenty-nine (Smyth, 1998). Whilst it could be argued that the majority of young people in Northern Ireland display resilience and have very successful outcomes (e.g. Muldoon, et al., 2000) there is undoubtedly a sub-population of young men whose needs are not being met effectively, or simply being ignored. This concurs with previous studies in working class areas (e.g. Cohen, 1972; Hall & Jefferson, 1976; Willis, 1977; Jenkins, 1982, 1983; Bell, 1990; Gillespie, et al., 1992).

Compounding this depressing scenario is extreme apathy about the lack of amenities and employment opportunities available to these particular young men. The fact that many working class young men perceive they are unlikely to secure employment is in stark contrast to their belief that men must be the family bread-winner, making them feel more vulnerable and insecure. This creates complex gender contradictions for young men who believe that by withholding feelings and emotions they were demonstrating an important aspect of their masculinity — namely, that men do not need the support of others.

Health statistics within the north of Ireland increasingly reveal that being male is a risky business. Risk is a recurrent theme in young men’s health statistics revealing that young men jeopardise their health by partaking in both active and passive risk taking behaviour (Men’s Health Forum in Ireland, 2000). Actively, young men are more susceptible to drug and alcohol abuse; they are four times more likely than young women to commit suicide; they are more likely to suffer from heart disease and the most common cancers; they are more likely not to use a seat belt in the car and have a more serious accident on the roads or at work, they are eight times more likely to drown. Passively, young men tend to ignore symptoms when they are ill and feel shame or embarrassment at having to talk about sickness, which means they make fewer visits to their G.P. than women, and tend to internalise their problems (Lloyd, 1996; Denyer, 1998; Henry, 1999; Banks, 2000; Brady et al., 2000). Whilst health risks are not restricted to males, for example females are at a higher risk from smoking and eating disorders (Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland, 2001), there is a clear link between notions of masculinity and its impact upon men’s health. Stereotypical images of the ‘masculine ideal’ portray men as healthy, heterosexual and experienced. Therefore, men have learned to treat their bodies like machines in order to prove to themselves and others that their masculinity is intact. One outcome of this is that many men, in particular young men, frequently display their masculinity in an aggressive and uncompromising manner, which can make them appear unemotional and unwilling to seek support or medical advice.

In Northern Ireland young men face particular pressures that impact upon their development. Throughout the troubles it is predominantly young men who have been both the victims and perpetrators of community and sectarian violence (Smyth, 1998). Most grow up in polarised communities with their own specific identities and culture making it difficult for them to build friendships with those from other traditions. In the media, young men are alarmingly depicted as part of a deviant youth culture that has lost all of its morals and values. They are often portrayed as a threat both to themselves and others, thereby reinforcing the image of young men as a ‘social problem.’ In particular, crime; drug abuse; high levels of unemployment; sectarianism community division; paramilitary influence; punishment beatings and random shootings all contribute to the negative stereotyping of young men in our society. This further isolates young men from mainstream society and devalues their contribution and potential within local communities. Disturbing trends towards increases in suicide and attempted suicide amongst young males further highlight the insecurity and vulnerability that is evident amongst many young men. For example, in 1997, 24 young men aged fifteen to twenty four died from suicide in Northern Ireland in comparison to 6 young women (Brady, 2000, p. 7). Extended and less certain transitions from school to employment further expose the vulnerability of young people who live in the most deprived areas of Northern Ireland. This is supported by research (e.g. Armstrong, 1996) into the profile of young people aged sixteen and seventeen who are not in education, training or employment and henceforth termed ‘status 0’. Significantly, these findings reveal that young people, primarily young males, who are in ‘status 0’ for long periods of time, tend to become de-motivated and discouraged in respect to their chances of success in the labour market. Armstrong argues that it is not that large numbers of sixteen and seventeen year olds are dipping in and out of ‘status O’, rather, that young people find it difficult to get out of ‘status 0’ once they enter it. Other economic research (e.g. Narendrathan and Ellis, 1993) has shown that those who experience unemployment as young people are significantly more likely to experience unemployment as adults. This is an important observation as it suggests there is an undefined status within society that consists primarily of young men who have not benefited from formal education are therefore the most likely grouping to be unemployed and experiencing poverty.

During the past few years there have been significant trends in society for a more consultative ethos, through which young people are encouraged to become more involved in decisions affecting them (Youth Council for Northern Ireland, 1993). Terms such as participation, empowerment, citizenship, rights and responsibilities reflect recent attempts to better appreciate youth potential and embrace diversity of culture. Despite difficult social conditions, the Northern Ireland Youth Service has played a significant role in influencing the ethos and guidelines in working with young people to help them gain the skills, confidence and motivation necessary to prepare them for the future. A key characteristic of the Youth Service is that young people are involved in its delivery. Cane for example, (1999) argues that ‘there is a long tradition of encouraging young people to take responsibility for their own affairs’ (p. 23). This does not mean however, that the needs of young people are being met satisfactorily or there is room for complacency. Significant numbers of young people disengage from existing youth provision an early age. (See for example, Northern Ireland Voluntary Trust, 1999.) The result is that many young people are not easy to contact or persuade to become involved’ (p. 2). Whilst historically various youth initiatives have engaged many young males, primarily through sport and recreation, those aged 16 — 25 have not adequately benefited from such provision. Of further concern is the number of young people aged 16+ who have never participated in youth provision, perceiving it as irrelevant and ‘out of touch.’ Undoubtedly, traditional approaches have struggled to respond effectively to the needs of this age group. One outcome of this is by the age of sixteen many young people who have participated on youth programmes have become disillusioned and struggle to identify any significant benefit from their involvement (Youth Council, 1998; NIVT, 1999). As noted by Geraghty et al., (1997) ‘It would appear that neither the practice nor the ethos (of youth service provision) are either meaningful or relevant to them’ (p. 104). Research into youth provision carried out by the North Eastern Education and Library Board (1994) found that the majority of young people aged over sixteen do not use traditional Youth Service provision. They perceive it as being ill-equipped to support their health, developmental or emotional needs or effectively address their sense of alienation and powerlessness. Building a more inclusive service for young people, particularly those aged 16 — 25, who feel marginalised and vulnerable within our society, presents an enormous challenge to the youth sector. Crucially however, it was similar challenges that formed the background to the innovative work with girls and young women that have been established in the youth sector during the past fifteen years.

From the early 1980’s there was growing evidence that girls were not participating in Youth Service provision to the same extent as young men. Girls were perceived and accepted as passive in contrast to the dominant and aggressive behaviour of boys. Studies such as Trimble (1990) highlighted the need for new responses to developing work with girls and young women. Increasingly, programmes focusing on personal and skill development, health matters and other relevant issues provided young women with opportunities to articulate their views and encourage greater participation. In 1994, the Youth Council for Northern Ireland published curriculum guidelines that, for the first time, focused on gender as a possible curriculum area. ‘Into the Mainstream’ rightly stated that males and females do not participate on an equal basis in the majority of Youth Service provision and there is an overwhelming ‘orientation towards boys and young men’ (p. 14). Despite constraints, structures have been developed within the You Service that better facilitate the needs of girls and young women (Gray, 1999). Whilst women have established for themselves firm roots in the ethos of community, there is still much work to be done in terms of the marginalisation of young women.

Prior to the 1990’s young women undoubtedly participated less in Youth Service provision than young men did and there was a clear need to develop appropriate strategies to redress this issue. In response to the early work with girls, many boys responded initially by frustrating sessions and creating a continual aggressive counterbalance. Consequently, boys were deemed ‘the problem’ and therefore much work with boys at this time had an ‘anti-sexist’ focus. Essentially, this only served to reinforce negative masculine perceptions such as the view that boys are aggressive, violent competitive and disruptive. As a result of the behavioural difficulties that boys portrayed, it was believed the best way to ‘sort out the boys’ was to involve them in physical activity. Whilst historically this approach has consistently attracted and involved young men, it has not effectively responded to their holistic needs (Lloyd, 1996). It is within this context that the need for a non-traditional approach to working with boys and young men was conceived. To date however, this has not been deemed a priority area within Youth Service Curriculum or Youth Service Policy Documents.

Since the formation of the Youth Service, work with boys and young men has tended to focus on their recreational needs and diversionary responses to aggressive and anti-social male behaviour. Little work has been carried out in developing more positive approaches that are concerned with young men’s emotional, mental and sexual well-being. The idea that new approaches to working with boys and young men were necessary is not a recent phenomenon. As far back as 1981, Moore was already suggesting the need for change when he called for ‘a re-evaluation of youth work with boys’ and looked forward to a ‘new definition of masculinity’ (p. 16). Posing the question ‘What does the Youth Service do for boys?’ Moore contested that youth work with boys was based on two main threads of competitiveness and social education. Moore believed that competitiveness gave general approval to ‘invidious comparison and aggression amongst boys’ (p.16). He conceived that the real challenge to youth work was rooted in the way it was delivered by practitioners. Therefore, in order to explore issues of masculinity and manhood with boys and young men, Moore argued that it was of fundamental importance that Youth Workers began to explore these issues themselves, a dimension he believed was ‘largely absent from their present work’ (p. 17).

Since 1981 there has been an ever-increasing deluge of literature identifying the need for more effective responses to working with young men. For example, Jackson & Salisbury (1996) claim that at street level in different communities there is a real problem with young men, as nobody appears to know what to do with them. Writers (such as Davidson, 1988; Cousins, 1988; Harland, 1997; Lloyd, 1996, 1997) also argue that it is imperative that work with boys and young men is developed outside the damaging limitations of stereotypical masculinity. Despite the increasing number of practitioners who have been highlighting the need for work with boys and young men to be reevaluated, there appears to be reluctance within the Youth Service and key founders to embrace, or take seriously this crucial area of work. It is essential that the Youth Service in Northern Ireland responds more directly to the changing needs of boys and young men, particularly those living in inner city and rural areas who are on the margins of society. A more strategic approach that does not tolerate, perpetuate, or reinforce restrictive stereotypical images of men and masculinity will help unlock the creativity, energy and potential that young men undoubtedly possess. It will also help free young men from their perceived need to hide behind the ‘masculine masks’ that prevent them from recognising and accepting that they can be sensitive, caring and at times vulnerable, without believing they are somehow compromising their identity and masculine status.

Those working with young men have a responsibility to challenge such perceptions and provide young men with the support and opportunities they need to make them feel valuable, worthwhile and more inclusive members of society. Central to this is the need for a youth curriculum that addresses pertinent and controversial issues such as sexuality, gender, relationships, masculinity, homophobia, violence, sexual health, parenting, male roles, mental health, risk taking, suicide, employment trends and citizenship. This will in itself directly lead to increased confidence and understanding and reduce the fear, ignorance and isolation that so many young men experience.

THE YOUTH SERVICE IN NORTHERN IRELAND:

A more strategic approach to working with marginalised young men must be developed by the Northern Ireland Youth Service that will inform and influence future policy development and curriculum initiatives. No longer can it be tolerated that so many young men in our society feel so marginalised, powerless, isolated, depressed, worthless and without support. The delivery of youth work must be a fully inclusive service and therefore a key objective should be to address the alienation that many young men feel at every level of their experience. This should include approaches through which young men can address the complexities of being young and where they are supported through the ever extending and complex transitional phase from boyhood to adulthood. To do otherwise is to allow the perpetuation of a service that fails many young men and keeps them jammed within the severe limitations of narrow stereotypical masculine aspirations.

There are an increasing number of requests for YouthAction to provide training and support to locally based workers to help them develop their work with young men. "I just don’t know what to do with them?" is a common recurrence amongst workers who frequently feel helpless, demoralised, unsupported and under-resourced when working with young men in inner city and rural areas. This is critical as they are at the forefront of responding to the needs of these young men. Whilst ‘work with young men’ has recently been incorporated within Community Youth Work courses at the University of Ulster, the majority of locally based workers do not have access to such training. Developing skills that will build workers confidence in engaging more effectively with marginalised young men should be incorporated within all youth work practice.

These are crucial issues that the Northern Ireland Youth Service must address at the dawn of the third millennium. It can no longer be tolerated that so many young men continue to exist and survive in a society where the very systems established to resource them, they perceive as irrelevant. In a world that has changed rapidly over the past thirty years, new methods of working with young men and responding to their needs must be developed. This is of fundamental importance as Northern Ireland attempts to move from a dysfunctional to a more stable society. A new social and political context provides exciting opportunities for future youth work policy and curriculum to constructively shape the society in which we live. New beginnings create new possibilities. McMasters (2000) challenges the Youth Service to ‘clarify its vision for a new Northern Ireland’ (p. 2). This is particularly important in regard to the many young men whose developmental and emotional needs remain unmet within current youth work provision. If young men are to play a more constructive role in building a peaceful society, then it is of paramount importance that the Youth Service finds more positive ways of responding to their needs.

YouthAction Northern Ireland has been developing non-traditional approaches to work with young men since 1990. Initially, this began by offering training to youth workers who were finding it increasingly difficult to engage effectively with young men, many of whom were outside traditional youth service provision. In 1996/97, YouthAction produced two major publications: ‘Young Men’s Health — A Youth Work Concern’ and ‘Young Men Talking — Voices from Belfast.’ This lead in 1997 to the appointment of a full-time worker for three years, funded by Youthnet to develop work with marginalised young men aged 14-25 living in inner city and rural areas of Northern Ireland. This was carried out in partnership with workers in local communities and youth organisations who were experiencing difficulty engaging with young men beyond bravado and banter.

Programmes aim to help young men acquire new skills and confidence and accept greater responsibility for their own lives. Environments are created where young men feel safe to talk about what they think and feel. The project addresses sensitive issues such as, self-esteem, relationships, masculinity, risk taking, mental health, fatherhood, violence and sexual health. Programmes promote positive community relations underpinned by clear principles and exploration of what it means to be a young man in Northern Ireland. Importantly, young men are supported to better understand the positive role they can play in contributing to a more peaceful society. The principles behind this approach to working with young men have been developed for many years in London by an organisation called ‘Working with Men.’

A significant development to our work with marginalised young men has been the establishment of a Young Men’s Forum consisting of young men aged 16 — 25 from different backgrounds and traditions. This consists of young men who have participated on our programmes and demonstrated a concern to support other young men in their communities. The Forum provides a voice for young men to share their experience and concerns whilst providing a structure for peer support.

An external evaluation report (Lloyd, 1999) of YouthAction’s Work with Young Men’s Unit’s over a three year period demonstrated its ability to work effectively with 200 young men aged 15-25 in various communities throughout Northern Ireland. The evaluation identified a number of conclusions:

• Young men were provided with opportunities to reflect on their lives, to develop their ideas and views about a range of issues they say they rarely get to discuss elsewhere.

• An effective model of practice has been developed, using a mixture of activity and discussion underpinned by an understanding of masculinity.

• A broad range of exercises and approaches have been developed to engage young men around issues of masculinity, health, sex and relationships, risk-taking, violence, self-esteem and communication.

Central to the projects strengths have been in the way it has responded to the needs of young men. A significant number of young men have used the project as a route to more active community involvement and personal development.

The project has also developed an effective method of supporting other workers to develop their own work in this area. A support group style has begun to show rewards, but has only worked because of the substantial practice already developed by the Young Men’s Unit.

Within definitions of traditional forms of patriarchal masculinity many young men grow up believing and accepting that they must keep their thoughts, feelings and emotions to themselves. It is increasingly apparent however, that effective work with young men must facilitate expression of their opinions, thoughts, feelings, and expectations, as well as attempting to free them from the need to constantly prove themselves to others. This in itself will contribute to healthier lifestyles and enhanced mental health amongst young men. Within the Northern Ireland Youth Service, health education with young men has traditionally focused on their physical health through recreational activities and sport. Whilst this is undoubtedly valuable, recent studies alarmingly reveal the extent to which the overall health needs of young men in inner city and rural areas are not being met, with much youth provision perceived as ineffective and irrelevant (e.g. YouthAction, 1996, 1997; Henry, 1999; Heroes & Villains, 1999; Harland, 2000). Similarly, much of the youth work carried out with young men centres around keeping them out of trouble, reducing disruptive behaviour and anti-sexist work. This can mean that work with young men begins with a negative focus and is therefore not a sound basis on which to encourage human growth and development. The complexity of young men’s lives and their cry for support and understanding will not simply go away. Nor will the struggles many working class young men experience in regard to issues such as their contradictory experience of power and powerlessness; changing male roles; extended youth transitions; male academic underachievement; unrealistic employment prospects; homophobia; sex and sexuality; relationships; fatherhood; patriarchy and inappropriate masculine expectations. The list goes on. At every level of their experience there are many young men who exist without the support and direction they undoubtedly need. Subsequently, they are left clinging to unattainable and unrealistic masculine aspirations that further distance and alienate them from the reality of a world that has changed rapidly during the past thirty years. In a post-industrial era, it surely cannot be acceptable that certain young men continue to construct their identities within the confines, remnants and values of an industrial age that has largely become obsolete.

*    *    *

These are crucial issues that future youth provision in Northern Ireland must address effectively in order to embrace the challenge and potential that developing new approaches to work with boys and young men offers. Innovative youth work must respond to the needs of marginalised groups of young men and no longer provide a service that reinforces stereotypical and narrow definitions of masculinity. Importantly however, changing male attitudes that have been prevalent for many generations is no easy task. Although this process has begun, there is much in our society that continues to promote, perpetuate and reward traditional masculine images that can be so detrimental to young men’s development. It is imperative therefore, that funders and policy makers begin to listen, and respond more directly, to the difficulties workers have in engaging with young men who feel alienated and unsupported. This is particularly important in regard to marginalised groups of young men such as gay young men, young fathers, and young men with disabilities. Resources must be made available that will equip practitioners to develop more effective and strategic approaches to meeting their needs. All young men have a fundamental right to be heard. This includes listening to their pain, hurts and concerns as well as their hopes, aspirations and vision. Importantly however, despite some good examples of youth work practice with young men, to date, there is no coherent strategic approach to responding to their needs. In a global economy that has changed significantly during the past thirty years, there remains a sub population of marginalised young men living in inner city and rural areas who must be better supported to find their place, value and contribution to society. This presents a serious challenge, and exciting opportunity, for a Northern Ireland Youth Service of the third millennium.

__________

Armstrong, D. (1996) Young People on the Margin in Northern Ireland. Labour Market Bulletin. 10, Training and Employment Agency for N. Ireland. (p. 50-55).

Banks, I. (2000) Statistics presented at Inaugural Conference on Men’s Health, Balmoral Conference Centre, (Tuesday, 23rd. May) NIMEX 2000. Penton Exhibitions Publications. (Statistics from a wide range of sources including Home Office National Statistics, Samaritans, Department of Health and Social Services).

Bell, D. (1990) Acts of Union: Youth Culture and Sectarianism in N. Ireland. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.

Biddulph, S. (1998) Raising Boys: Why boys are different and how to help them to become happy and well balanced men. London: Thorsens Press.

Biddulph, S. (1999) Manhood: An action plan for changing men’s lives. London: Hawthorne Press.

Brady, N. (2000) Young men & positive mental health. Project Report. Published by Mental Health Association of Ireland, North Western Health Board and Western Health and Social Services Board.

Brady, N., Devine, R, Ewart, S., Fowler, C. (2000) Summary of Men’s Attitudes and Values Research. The Male Link Publications.

Cane, T. (Dec. 1999). Young People and Governance. Young People Now. National Youth Agency Publishers. (p. 23)

Cohen, P (1972) Sub-cultural conflict and working class community. Working papers in Cultural Studies. No. 2. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.

Cousins, N. (Feb. 1988) Setting the Example. Youth in Society.

Denyer, S. (1998) The Health of Men in the North West. Keynote address at Men’s Health Conference. Bundoran.

Davidson, N. (Jan. 1988) A Crisis in Masculinity. Youth in Society. Gardner, H. (1993) The Unschooled Mind. London: Fontana.

Geraghty, T., Breakey, C. and Keane, T. (1997) A Sense of Belonging: Young People in rural areas of Northern Ireland speak about their needs, hopes and aspirations. Youth Action Northern Ireland: Youth Action Publishers.

Gillespie, N., Lovett, T. and Garner, W. (1992) Youth Work and Working Class Youth Culture: Rules and Resistance in West Belfast. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury.

Gray, A. M. (1999) Lifting the Limits: A Community Leadership Programme by Young Mothers. Youth Action Northern Ireland: Youth Action Publishers.

Hall, S. and Jefferson, T. (1976) Resistance through Rituals: Youth Sub—culture in Post War Britain. London: Hutchinson Publishers.

Harland, K. Young Men Talking — Voices from Belfast (1997) YouthAction Northern Ireland and Working with Men, London Publications.

Harland, K. (2000) Men and Masculinity: The construction of masculine identities in inner city Belfast. PhD. submitted to the University of Ulster.

Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland. (March, 2001) Women, smoking and cessation: meeting the challenge. The journal of Health Promotion for Northern Ireland p. 24-25.

Henry, P. (1999) Someone to talk to … Someone to listen ... A Consultative report with young people in West Belfast on who they would confide in at a time of crisis and a presentation of their views on existing and proposed support services. North and West Belfast Health and Social Services Trust and the Belfast Education and Library Board.

Jenkins, R. (1982) Hightown Rules: Growing up in a Belfast Housing Estate. Leicester: National Youth Bureau Publishers.

Jenkins, R. (1983) Lads, Citizens and Ordinary Kids: Working-class Youth life-styles in Belfast. London: Routledge.

Lloyd, T. (1996) Young Men’s Health — A Youth Work Concern? Published jointly by YouthAction Northern Ireland and Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland.

Lloyd, T. (1997) Let’s get changed lads. Working with Men Publications. London.

Lloyd, T. (2000) Three year Evaluation Report of the Young Men’s Project at YouthAction Northern Ireland.

Mccully, A. (1999) Teaching Controversial Issues as part of the Peace Process in Northern Ireland. Paper presented to the AERA Conference, Montreal. April 1999.

McMaster, J. (2000) JEDI - Towards Future Strategy and Policy. Paper presented at launch of JEDI initiative.

Men’s Health Forum in Ireland (1999). Paper at launch of Men’s Health Forum. Wednesday 19th. May 1999.

Messner, M.A. (1997) Politics of Masculinity: Men in Movements. London: Sage Publications.

Moore, R. (Oct.1981) Rethinking work with Boys. Youth in Society.

Muldoon, OT, Trew, K, and Kilpatrick, R. (2000) The Legacy of the Troubles on Young People’s Psychological and Social Development and their School Life. Youth and Society Vol. 32(1) 6—28.

Narendranathan, W. and Eliis, R. (1993) Influences of Past History on the Incidence of Youth Employment: Empirical Findings for the UK Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 55 (2) (pp. 161-186).

North Eastern Education and Library Board (1994) Research into Youth provision. North Eastern Education and Library Board

Northern Ireland Voluntary Trust. (June, 1999) Empowering Young Adults: Lessons from the Unattached Youth programme. Northern Ireland Voluntary Trust Briefing Paper.

Pollack, W. (1998) Real Boys. Penguin Books.

Pollack, W. (2001) Real Boys Voices. Penguin Books

Salisbury, J. and Jackson, D. (1996) Challenging Macho Behaviour: Practical ways of working with adolescent boys. London: The Falmer Press.

Seidler, V. J. (1997) Man Enough: Embodying Masculinities. London: Sage.

Smyth, M. (1998) Half the Battle: Understanding the Impact of the Troubles on Children and Young People. Derry/Londonderry: Incore. University of Ulster.

Trimble, J. (1990) Equality of Opportunity: Provision for girls and young women on the full-time sector of the NI. Youth Service. Belfast: Youth Action NI Publications.

Willis, P. (1977) Learning to Labour. Saxon House Press.

Youth Council for Northern Ireland. (1993) Participation: Youth Work Curriculum Guidelines. Youth Council for Northern Ireland Publishers. (pp. 9-10)

Youth Council For Northern Ireland. (Jan.1994) Into the Mainstream. Equality of Opportunity - Gender. Youth Work Curriculum Guidelines. Youth Council for Northern Ireland Publishers.

Youth Council For Northern Ireland. (1998) Benefits of the Youth Service: A study of the experiences of 14-18 year old members of registered youth groups in Northern Ireland. Youth Council for Northern Ireland Publications.